Bioassay of Radish Seeds free essay sample

The lab seeks to determine the potency of NaCl by determining its effect in different concentrations on the growth of the seed roots. This served to give us a cheap and quick way to experience a bioassay experiment from our classroom. Hypothesis I believe that a greater concentration of NaCl will correlate with a lower seed germination rate, as well as a shorter radicle length. Procedure 1. Label petri dishes with the appropriate concentration levels and place filter paper in each dish. 2. Treat each dish with 2mL of the appropriate concentration of the bleach solution 3. Place 6 seeds in each dish. Make sure they do not touch the sides of the dish or each other. 4. Leave the dish in a dark place so that the roots can grow. 5. Dishes were left in the dark for four days due to the blizzard. 6. Recover dishes and measure the length of the roots at different concentrations 7. We will write a custom essay sample on Bioassay of Radish Seeds or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Calculate the averages of the roots and number of germinated seeds with those of the different groups 8. Create graphs for both the root length and number of germinated seeds Results length of radicle (mm) Group 1Group 2Group 3Group 4Group 5Group 6Average % NaClM NaCl 100. 00. 2008. 420. 241. 418. 211. 820. 420. 1 50. 00. 10031. 66. 072. 034. 232. 46. 640. 4 37. 50. 07532. 067. 481.. 842. 245. 011. 239. 6 25. 00. 05045. 269. 691. 839. 839. 429. 252. 5 12. 50. 02552. 063. 0129. 241. 457. 452. 465. 9 0. 00. 00040. 075. 057. 660. 254. 26. 048. 8 # of germinating seeds % NaClM NaClGroup 1Group 2Group 3Group 4Group 5Group 6Average 100. 00. 2003555354. 3 50. 00. 1004555534. 5 37. 50. 0755553544. 5 25. 00. 0505454544. 5 12. 50. 0255454544. 5 0. 00. 0004555534. 5 Based on this experiment, the TC50 for seed germination cannot be found. Discussion/Conclusion Essentially, what the data tells me is that our hypothesis was correct. The toxicity of NaCl has a great effect on the length of the radical via limiting its growth. It lowers germination as well – though with much less effect. Radicle length was certainly more affected than germination rate, though both were lowered. Interestingly, radicle length at 12. 5% for example, was clearly much higher than at 100% a trend for radical length was seen through the graph, but the 0% concentration broke that trend. A reason for this could be that the seed needs a slight amount of NaCl to flourish properly – but as levels increased above minimal ones, diminishing returns were clearly noted. This is true for many things in science – too little of something is not conducive, but at the same time, slightly too much could absolutely ruin everything. As stated above, the hypothesis was certainly validated. Though it is not too shocking, it certainly was proven to be correct that the more NaCl, the lower germination and growth rates we would observe. I think there could be some error in possibly not writing down the data correctly, and also from allowing the seeds to sit for so long due to the blizzard. Regardless, I think the hypothesis was certainly validated and that the lab was a good way to understand the effects of NaCl on radicle length and germination rate. 1. 1. Did at least 80% of the seeds in the control dishes germinate? If not, what would you recommend doing differently next time to try to get a better germination rate? Yes, all of our seeds in the control dish germinated. 2. Did radish seed germination respond in a predictable way to concentration? Describe any trends you observed. I felt that the germination was predictable. The higher the concentration of the NaCl Bleach solution, the lower the number of germinated seeds. . Do any of your data not fit the trends you observed? If so, can you think of any reasons why these data might lie outside the range you would expect? Yes my data in the Average Radicle Length area doesn’t make a lot of sense. I think this was not due to anything regarding the experiment, but human error in recording the data. 4. What is you r estimate of the TC50 based on your radish seed germination data? What is your estimate of the TC50 based on your radicle length data? Which shows a greater response to the chemical you tested: germination rate or radicle length? Describe any similarities or differences that you noticed in trends between these two indicators of toxicity. I believe that the TC50 for both the seed germination was 25% and 50% for the radicle length data. From this it can be seen that the radicle length of the plant reacted more strongly to the chemical than the seed germination. In both instances it can be clearly seen that large doses of the chemicals had negative effects on the germination and radicle length of the plant. 5. What can you conclude about the toxicity of the substance you tested? Is this what you expected? Was your hypothesis supported by the data? I concluded that the higher the concentration of the chemical, the smaller the radicle length will be and the less likely the seed will be to germinate. This was exactly what I hypothesized at the start of the lab 6. Based on this experiment, would you say that radish seed germination or root length would provide a useful bioassay for water samples from the environment? Why or why not? I think the radicle length would provide a more useful bioassay as it is more sensitive to the concentration of the chemical. 7. If you were going to repeat this experiment, what would you do differently? How might you improve the experimental design to reduce the variability of your data or lead to more reliable results? I think I would have paid more attention while writing the data for the lab. I feel as if some of the data was skewed as a result of carelessness while recording my lab data. As for the lab itself, I feel the data might have been a little more reliable had we taken less time to return to the lab. This was not a problem with the lab itself, but due to the blizzard the lab was truncated.

Kylie Masshardt Essays (496 words) - Military History By Country

Kylie Masshardt Essays (496 words) - Military History By Country Kylie Masshardt 3rd period March 27,2016 World War 1 Weaponry Between July 28 of 1914 to November 11 of 1918 a four-year world war broke out around the globe. With more than 15 participating nations and empires, many advancements in various fields were inevitable. There were many contributing factors as to why the war broke out, but one aspect that is often placed aside is the importance of the weapons utilized during the war. There were hundreds of weapons that made an appearance in the war, some of which include: poison gas, tanks, and machine guns. How these three specific weapons played a role in the war varies from each weapon and nation using them. April of 1915, the Germans introduced poison gas at the second battle of Ypres. Chlorine was the first gas used, killing hundreds of French troops. As the war progressed so did the usage of poison gas. Beginning as only chlorine, many gases began making their way onto the battle field. Introduced a few years later was phosgene and mustard gas, which blinded those who came in contact with it. By the year 1917 poison gas could be delivered with better accuracy with the use of chemical shells and mortars. By the end of the war there was an estimated of one million casualties due to poison gas. In addition to poison gas, tanks, or "land battleships," were introduced in the first world war. At the orders of Winston Churchill on September 1916, the tank would make its first appearance in the war. Initially, the tank was built with the intent of being indestructible to the machine gun fire, and their tracks would be able to cross rugged terrain, trenches, as well as barbed-wire. Although the tanks weekend enemy morals, they had faults. The tanks were slow and endured many mechanical problems. As stated by Mr.Bronsnan,"[] tanks were more reliable and available to British forces in greater number." Lastly, the machine. The machine gun wasn't a new weapon though. American, Hiram Maxim, had invented the gun that bore his name in 1884 but it was later altered and refined and made easier to carry. Making it more reliable and even deadlier across the expanses of "no man land" that separated the two sides on the Western Front. Germany also endured a type of machine gun, the Maschinegewehr 08. It had been based on the Maxim gun, it could fire 400 hundred rounds a single minute. The machine gun allowed for a faster more efficient war to be fought. In conclusion, many weapons had been introduced or utilized during the first world war. These weapons allowed for certain advantages and progressions in future weaponry. There were hundreds of weapons that made an appearance in the war, some of which include: poison gas, tanks, and machine guns. How these three specific weapons played a role in the war varies from each weapon and nation using them.

Stereotyping around us Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Stereotyping around us - Essay Example Thus, stereotyping is a dangerous thing, as it makes us judge about all the members of certain group (race, nationality, profession) basing on the information about several representatives of that group. However, it is claimed that stereotypes exist in order to make our lives better and more comfortable. We simply do not have time to receive all the information about certain phenomena, analyzing it ourselves and making judgments. In order to save time society has invented stereotypes which allow passing concentrated information from one person to another. For example, it works with nationalities in a simple way, due to stereotypes we know that all Canadians are polite, Brazilians like to have fun, German are serious and punctual. But not all the stereotypes are positive, unfortunately, and some may hurt dignity of representatives of certain nation (Rogier & Yzerbut, 1999). Stereotypes start acting before mind starts working. Stereotypes leave imprints on our perceptions before this perceptions get to the analytical part of the brain. If a person has solid experience and is not prone to trust all the new information he will critically asses stereotypes and somehow compare it with existing knowledge. But in most cases people think that stereotypes are trustworthy and accept this information as reasonable. This can lead to building further stereotypes and seeing world in a distorted way in general. It is absolutely superficial to judge all 1 billion of Chinese as academically gifted or viewing all the Kuwaiti as showing off, isn`t it? Therefore, stereotypes must be thought over, analyzed critically and only then taken into

Historical Essay for DREAM Act Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Historical for DREAM Act - Essay Example Reports show that California has the largest population of illegal immigrants compared to other states. The act poses an economic threat since the immigrants demand goods and other services that affect the economic growth while receiving various government benefits. The immigrants also reduce the wages paid to lower income and the less educated workers with a reduction in employers companies that employ them (Hanson, p.14). The Dream Act is a proposal by the American Legislative introduced on 1st August 2001 in the Senate. The Act introduced in the Senate for several times but failed to pass and proposed a multi-phase for the undocumented immigrants in the United States granting conditional residency upon meeting further qualification (Durbin, p.22). The development and relief of Dream Act of 2005 amends the illegal immigration reform and authorizes the Homeland Security to cancel the removal and adjust to conditional permanent resident status. In the year 2005, Margaret Stock, a retired Colonel in the U.S pointed out the potential beneficiaries of the Dream Act more so in the military field. She opposed the deportation law of the young people claiming that it makes no sense. She instead proposed that the young men would be recruited in the military, and thus the nation security in the country would increase. The Act continued to attract support in 2007 when Senator Richard Durbin proposed that the imm igrant students with great potential could be allowed to contribute to the society and the security. Jim Edgar, former Illinois Governor expressed his support towards the Dream Act claiming that a kind nation like the U.S should not turn their back on the young generation brought by their parents suggesting that they should join the colleges and finally qualify for a permanent citizenship (Durbin, p.15). In the recent years, the Act failed to pass in 2009 even though the Senator

Women in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice Essay

Women in Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice - Essay Example Undoubtedly, Shakespeare is the most famous and well known playwright of the English language and Merchant of Venice is one of his most performed plays even though the focus of the play is often the character of Shylock, the character of Portia remains quite important since she represents the highest values that Christian virtue could appeal to during the times. In this manner, the female characters become significantly more important than their male counterparts who may show weakness and even a defeatist attitude (Sanders, 1968). Portia outshines the men in the play particularly with regard to virtue since she remains dutiful to the orders of her dead father even though her heart tells her to do otherwise. She is divinely rewarded when the man she loves makes the right choice with regard to the lead, silver and gold boxes. Like many other Shakespearean women, Portia becomes an important character despite the presence of other strong characters such as Anotnio and Shylock. Even though the position of women in shakespeare’s times was not one which could have made this a realistic play, the approach taken by Shakespeare certainly makes Portia the strongest character. Interestingly, Shakespeare was living at a time when the most powerful ruler in Europe was a lady who founded the British Empire as it took shape for centuries to come. While the Christian dogma at the time may have seen women to be fickle, fragile and weak, a ruler as a woman meant that the qualities of Portia were completely natural since she certainly displays kingly virtues of intelligence and mercy. There is certainly some social hypocrisy in this situation since women had little rights in society at the time and even Portia was not the mistress of her own destiny, yet she saves Antonio and even ‘forgives’ Shylock after she has won her case. Portia eloquently describes the qualities of mercy which is a Christian ideal and is something heroes would show to their

Review Of Brzezinskis The Grand Chessboard Politics Essay

Review Of Brzezinskis The Grand Chessboard Politics Essay The Grand Chessboard was written by Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Adviser to President Jimmy Carter, and was published in 1997. It is a progressive book on American foreign policy of the 1990s and after. It looks candidly at reasons for Americas policy of aggression towards Afghanistan and conciliation towards Pakistan. It also spells out the need for Americas policy of toleration towards Saudi Arabia and its carrot and stick attitude towards China. It throws light on the growing problem of religious fundamentalism and the need for America to stay ahead as the only superpower in order to control Eurasian politics. The book is divided into seven chapters and runs into 220 pages. Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski was born March on 28, 1928 in Warsaw, Poland. He is an eminent American political scientist, foreign policy advisor and statesman who was National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter from 1977 to 1981 and continues to be President Barrack Obamas mentor and foreign policy advisor. He is Professor of American foreign policy at Johns Hopkins Universitys School of Advanced International Studies. He is also a scholar of great repute at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, and a valuable member of various governmental and non-governmental boards and councils. Brzezinski belonged to the Polish nobility and his family bore the Traby Coat of Arms insignia. They originally came from the town of Brzezany in Galicia which is said to be the source of his family name. Brzezinskis father was a Polish diplomat who was posted in Germany prior to World War II. Brzezinski spent some of his earliest years witnessing the rise of the Nazis and this may have some bearing on his anti-Semitic and anti-Israel leanings. He went to Harvard University to work on a PhD that focused on the Soviet Union. His research led him to trace the connections between the Russian Revolution, Lenins position in Russian politics and the proceedings during Stalins reign. He received his doctorate degree in 1953 and later collaborated with German-American Professor and political scientist, Carl J. Friedrich to develop the concept of totalitarianism and apply its principles to the Soviet Union of 1956. Brzezinski dedicated the book to his students and in Brzezinskis words it is For my students- to help them shape tomorrows world. Hence all students of politics and international relations will benefit from reading this book. It is also a worthy guideline for political scientists and diplomats who would want to get an in-depth knowledge of American foreign policy and rationale behind the changing strategies to stay ahead and on top of global geo-politics. Brzezinski writes in the introduction to this book, The formulation of a comprehensive and integrated Eurasian geo-strategy is therefore the purpose of this book (Brzezinski 1997). In his book The Grand Chessboard, Brzezinski has discussed his most significant contribution to post-Cold War geo-strategy. He emphasizes the need for America to be the global leader and continue to be the arbiter of Eurasian geopolitics. His theory simply put is for American hegemony to continue and for America to dominate the economic and political arenas by minimizing the risk of other potential super powers from Eurasia to gain ascendency in world politics. He has divided Eurasia into four distinct regions and has discussed ways in which the US should charter its foreign policy towards these regions in order to maintain its global dominance. Brzezinski lays claims to the United States being the only comprehensive superpower after the fall of the Soviet Union: America is now Eurasias arbiter, with no major Eurasian issue soluble without Americas participation or contrary to Americas interests (Brzezinski 194). In The Grand Chessboard Brzezinski gives the audience a complete and candid elucidation of American international strategy since 1992. He explains that what this strategy aims at is absolute global dominance by America. Appreciating Brzezinskis argument requires looking at Americas Cold-War strategy through a new lens. (By Zbigniew K. Brzezinski Basic Books) The geo-strategy takes a close look at world affairs during the last decade of the twentieth century. It attempts to decipher the tectonic shift in world affairs and scrutinizes the role America needs to play as the emergent superpower in a uni-polar world. Brzezinski points out that for the first time in history a non- Eurasian power has surfaced as a major negotiator of Eurasian power dealings and also as the worlds paramount power(Brzezinski xiii). The disintegration and collapse of the Soviet Union gave the United States a key foothold in its rapid ascendance as the actual and exclusive global superpower. The source of Americas growing geopolitical ambitions was provided by the rapid growth of the countrys economy through industrialization. The significant economic development was promoted by a culture and environment that encouraged experimentation and modernization. Americas open and democratic political institutions and free market financial system created unique opportunities for wealthy investors to expand the countrys economy and boost its international reputation. The American way of life was congenial to economic growth and the development of national power. The book deals with some major issues of world politics and spells out Brzezinskis take on the design of US foreign policies in dealing with these issues. The rising threat from Islamic fundamentalism to American primacy is described as a possible issue that might prove challenging. Maintaining control over the unstable west Asian region in the absence of a stable and dominant Islamic state could be part of the Middle Eastern problem. Brzezinski argues that even though the Cold War is over and America has emerged as the single most dominant superpower after the collapse of the Soviet Union, it is still necessary to maintain American hegemony to prevent the emergence of a dangerous multi-polar world of independent great powers scrambling for predominance and political advantage. He describes the three grand imperatives, of Americas strategy, its mechanisms and purposes are to help prevent conspiracy against American interests; to ensure the dependence of the less secure nations and pledge their loyalty by providing them security against fundamentalist forces and to keep the underlings pliant and protected in order to prevent other potential powers from taking over these regions. The manuscript provides insights into the thinking behind the 1992 planning document issued by the Pentagon, which maintained that the United States must continue to control the international system by not allowing other advanced and industrialized nations to challenge American leadership or try to assume a larger regional or global role. Americas leadership role, as Brzezinski advocates, meant that not only should the United States dominate its allies, the wealthy and technologically developed states in Europe and East Asia, but also that it must lead the way in fostering peace and stability by dealing with such irritants as Saddam Hussein of Iraq, Slobodan Milosevic of Serbia, and Kim Jong II of North Korea so that there is no scope for potential super powers like Germany or Japan to acquire the means to resolve regional problems by themselves and gain supremacy in the region. The growth of Islamic fundamentalism could exploit the religious sentiments against the Americans and take advantage of the Arab-Israel conflict to undermine and destabilize the authority of several pro-American Middle Eastern states and jeopardize the regional interests of America in the Persian Gulf region. Brzezinski, however, points out that without political unity and in the absence of a single indisputable influential Islamic state, a challenge from Islamic fundamentalism would lack a geopolitical core and would thus be more likely to express itself through diffuse violence (Brzezinski 53). The book also contains other references to the steadily growing problem of Muslim fundamentalism and its impact on global security. The real thrust of Americas foreign policy since the start of the Cold War, according to Brzezinski, was not to thwart or overcome the Soviet menace, but the successful effort to impose an ambitious vision on a confused and disorganized global scenario. The basic idea was to provide for the security of the Eurasian potential super powers and by engage them in such a manner that their military and foreign policies would encourage them to form alliances that America dominated and keep its erstwhile enemies contained. It also sought to prevent its partners from embarking upon independent foreign and military policies that might jeopardize American interests and supremacy at the global level. This policy would help to stabilized relationships among the states of Western Europe and East Asia, and reassure their neighboring states that these powerful partners would remain appeased and loyal. With America leading from the front the West European and East Asian nations would be free from fea rs and mutual competitions and would be able to cooperate politically and economically. This in turn would create stability and harmony in the world and would enhance prosperity and international order that would aid the advanced industrialized countries to forge ahead and maintain economic growth and development. Brzezinski elucidates his point by citing the example of how encouraging Korea to become a unified democratic entity would not be in Americas interests as this development would endanger Americas global control strategy. A rejuvenated and unified Korea would minimize the apparent need for U.S. troops on the peninsula; and would lead to a U.S. pullback from East Asia. This, in turn, would lead to Japan becoming more self-sufficient and secure militarily; that would show the way for military, political and economic rivalry and bickering amongst the nations in the Far East. Japan would gain dominance and could become a potential threat to American supremacy in that region. Hence, the best solution was to maintain the status quo in Korea, which allowed U.S. forces to be stationed there indefinitely and keep vigilance in the area. The ultimate objective of American foreign policy should be benevolent and farsighted in keeping with American ideals and the fundamental interests of human kind. But in so doing the policy must ensure that no Eurasian power be allowed to emerge as a potential challenger to Americas position as the world leader. It must stay ahead in the race and neutralize through effective alliances and policies any scope for a unified Europe or an individual developed nation capable of dominating Eurasian economy and politics and eliminate potential challenge for America. The book gives us an in-depth insight into policies and policy making but it leave some questions unanswered. It discloses the logic that has motivated the American national security strategy ever since the Cold War but it also highlights the fact that this logic predictably involves a massive project that is necessarily open-ended and long lasting. To maintain status quo in an effort to preserve political, economic and strategic dominance America must continue the policy of maintaining troops in the unstable regions of Islamic fundamentalism. The price of such aggressive posturing can be high in the changing climate of world politics and the new vision of a harmonious and peaceful world. So the question remains, according to Brzezinskis logic, how do you pull out troops from the different regions and encourage self governance and at the same time follow the policy of global leadership where the troops must always remain? Brzezinskis theory of global adult-super vision strategy means that American expenditure on its military and security is nearly as much as, perhaps, the rest of the world combined. However, he argues that in order to maintain its control over the Black Sea oil it must deal with Turkey and Iran carefully. To maintain its hegemony over this region might mean sending more troops to stabilize the region. That American interests were firmly planted in the region is apparent: The momentum of Asias economic development is already generating massive pressures for the exploration and exploitation of new sources of energy and the Central Asian region and the Caspian Sea basin are known to contain reserves of natural gas and oil that dwarf those of Kuwait, the Gulf of Mexico, or the North Sea. (Brzezinski 125). Brzezinski freely admits that executing a policy of global dominance is difficult, absorbing, and costly, and offers a solution which is a bit contradictory. Although in keeping with the short and midterm interests continued U.S. preponderance is an absolute necessity, Brzezinski argues that in the long-term the United States can share leadership with regional powers. Multilateral projects, beginning from international adjudicators to U.N. police procedures, all of these require a strong leader. Brzezinskis main argument relies on the claim that American hegemony remains the indispensable foundation for world cooperation and the integration of advanced countries towards world peace and balance of power. To support his argument Brzezinski outlines the possibility of an eventual trilateral division of leadership among the United States, Europe, and Japan. Even then he makes it quite apparent that Europe and Japan would remain junior partners to a predominant America with a larger share of the expenses with no greater authority and independence. The partner nations have never agreed to this formula and have consistently said that if the United States wanted to lead, it would have to pay the expenses and incur the hazards that accompanied leadership. Thus, to say that America can never let go of its supremacy because of the political, economic, and military ramifications is stretching the point a bit far. Cooperation among the great powers ensures stability and peace and that it can only be garnered under American supervision is somewhat self-defeating. According to Brzezinski, stability in Western Europe and East Asia could be guaranteed by American predominance alone, was the prerequisite for cooperation and stability. There is no reason to believe that, without this guarantor, stability will not be achieved. Americas dominant position should foster stability and create a geopolitical core of peaceful global management and shared responsibility.

Plc Programmable Logic Controller

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM USING PLC * Company Products & Services * Abstract * Hydraulic System * Bow Compression Machine * Circuit Diagram * Description * Chiller Unit * Solenoid valve * Introduction To PLC * Software * Advantages Of PLC * Introduction To PLC * Existing System * Proposed System * Ladder Logic Diagram * Ladder Logic Description * Energy Saving Calculation * For Existing Method * For Proposed Method * Advantages & Applications * Conclusion * References ABSTRACT :One of the challenging factor in factories, for the proper functioning of the machine for the long duration with efficiency is to keep certain parameters within a specific range. Thus, in this paper, we have designed a ladder diagram for running PLC with the objective to automatically control the hydraulic system. Our main requirement is to design a PLC which can be connected to hydraulic system to implement the parameters and operations like Temperature detection, Pressure detection, Lubrication, Automatic machine operation and Oil level detection.The mentioned parameters and operations can be sensed and operated through PLC without any manual checking and operation. This saves more power to industries by reducing the power consumption. INTRODUCTION In the last decades, the machines used in the industries were operated manually. So keeping its certain important parameters in a specific range was difficult. Also they can not be checked out frequently. This results in improper functioning of the machine. Also, the machines cannot work efficiently for a long time.For example, if the temperature of the oil goes beyond the desired value it will affect the machine function. Hence the machine accessories cannot withstand this high temperature. This leads to the damage in machine and the durability of the machine also gets reduced. Thus, the working machine requires frequent checking of certain parameters to maintain the value within the specified range for proper operation. The var ious parameters to be checked frequently are: 1. Temperature detection 2. Lubrication 3. Automatic machine operation 4. Oil level detection . Pressure Thus we are using a PLC to control all these parameters. We are designing a ladder diagram to control all the parameters automatically. In this paper, we are describing about the hydraulic drive system in which PLC is used to control its working. An introduction of PLC is provided and also the ladder diagram overview. We will be discussing about the advantages of PLC and also the power saving estimation in the industries by using PLC. The machine which we have taken under consideration for implementation is BOW CORRECTION MACHINE.Also, the chiller unit is described as it plays a major role for the power saving purpose. HYDRAULIC DRIVE SYSTEM : A  hydraulic drive system  is a drive or  transmission  system that uses pressurized  hydraulic fluid  to drive  hydraulic machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from flow and pressure, not from the  kinetic energy  of the flow. Principle of a hydraulic drive Pascal's law  is the basis of hydraulic drive systems. As the pressure in the system is the same, the force that the fluid gives to the surroundings is therefore equal to pressure ? rea. In such a way, a small piston feels a small force and a large piston feels a large force. For an understanding of how a hydraulic system works, we must know the basic principles, or laws, of hydraulics, that is, of confined liquids under pressure. This will be made easier, however, if we first examine the somewhat simpler laws governing the behavior of liquids when  unconfined, that is, in open containers. 1. Liquids in open containers. a. Density and specific gravity. The first characteristic of an unconfined liquid which interests us is its density.The density of a fluid is the  weight of a unit volume of it. The unit of volume normally used in this text is the cubic foot; the unit o f weight normally used is the pound. The standard of density, to which the densities of all other liquids are referred, is that of pure water at zero degrees centigrade (32 degrees Fahrenheit), and at sea-level atmospheric pressure. b. Force and pressure. A liquid has no shape of its own. It acquires the shape of its container up to the level to which it fills the container. However, we know that liquids have weight.This weight exerts a force upon all sides of the container, and this force can be measured. Therefore, for unconfined liquids, that is, liquids in open containers, the pressure in pounds per square inch exerted by the liquid on the bottom of the container is equal to the weight of the liquid on each square inch of the bottom of the container. It must be emphasized that the  weight  of the liquid is here thought of as a  forceexerted on the bottom of the container. Expressed as a formula, we have: Pressure = Force per unit areaIt is understood that the word pressure , when not otherwise qualified, means  pressure in pounds per square inch. This is called the total force and is obtained by the formula: Total Force = Pressure X Area The pressure exerted by a liquid on the bottom of a container is independent of the shape of the container, and depends only on the height and density of the liquid. 2. Liquids in enclosed systems. a. Liquids are practically incompressible. The following two basic principles will help to explain the behavior of liquids when enclosed: a) Liquids are practically incompressible. ) The applied pressure is transmitted equally in all directions at once. b. Increase of force with area. The ratio between the  force applied to the smaller piston  and the  force applied to the larger piston  is the same as the ratio between the  area of the smaller pistonand the  area of the larger piston. Expressed as a proportion, then, we have: Force on larger piston/Force on smaller piston = Area of larger piston/Area of small er piston This means that the mechanical advantage obtainable by such an arrangement is equal to the ratio between the areas of the two pistons.Since the area of the larger cylinder is 10 times as great as that of the smaller cylinder, pushing the smaller piston downward a distance of 1 inch will move the larger piston upward only 1/10 of an inch. The ratio between the displacement of liquid in the smaller cylinder and the displacement of liquid in the larger cylinder is once again equal to the ratio between their areas. so that the amount of work (force X distance) done by the larger piston is exactly the same as the amount done by the smaller piston. c. Multiple units.It is not necessary to confine our system to a single line from the source of hydraulic power. Hydraulic power may be transmitted in many directions to do multiple jobs. PUMP – In practice we usually need some device which will deliver, over a period of time, a definite volume of fluid at the required pressure , and which will continue to deliver it as long as we desire it to do so. Such a device is called a  pump. Basic principles of pumps. A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device which forcibly moves, or displaces, fluids.Various pumping principles are employed in the different types of hydraulic pumps, but one fundamental principle applies to all: a volume of fluid entering the intake opening, or port, is moved by mechanical action and forced out the discharge port. Hydraulic fluids. Almost any free-flowing liquid is suitable as a hydraulic fluid, as long as it will not chemically injure the hydraulic equipment. For example, an acid, although free-flowing, would obviously be unsuitable because it would corrode the metallic parts of the system. a. Basic units of a hydraulic system. 1.A reservoir, or supply tank, containing oil which is supplied to the system as needed and into which the oil from the return line flows. 2. A pump, which supplies the necessary working pressure. 3. A hydra ulic cylinder, or actuating cylinder, which uses the hydraulic energy developed in the pump to move the door. 4. A cut-out valve, by means of which the pressure in the actuating cylinder may be maintained or released as desired. 5. A check valve, placed in the return line to permit fluid to move in only one direction. 6. â€Å"Hydraulic lines,† such as piping or hose, to connect the units to each other.The supply tank must have a capacity large enough to keep the entire system filled with oil and furnish additional oil to make good the inevitable losses from leakage. The tank is vented to the atmosphere; thus atmospheric pressure (14. 7 pounds per square inch) forces the oil into the inlet, or suction, side of the pump. The tank is generally placed at a higher level than the other units in the system, so that gravity assists in feeding oil into other units. The pump is the hand-operated, reciprocating piston type. SOLENOID VALVE : A  solenoid valve  is an  electromechan ically  operated  valve.The valve is controlled by an  electric current  through asolenoid: in the case of a two-port valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three-port valve, the outflow is switched between the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a  manifold. Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in  fluidics. Their tasks are to shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas. Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design.There are many valve design variations. Ordinary valve can have many ports and fluid paths. A 2-way valve, for example, has 2 ports; if the valve is  closed, then the two ports are connected and fluid may flow between the ports; if the valve is  open, then ports are isolated. If the valve is open when the solenoid is n ot energized, then the valve is termed  normally open  (N. O. ). Similarly, if the valve is closed when the solenoid is not energized, then the valve is termednormally closed. [1]  There are also 3-way and more complicated designs.A 3-way valve has 3 ports; it connects one port to either of the two other ports (typically a supply port and an exhaust port). Solenoid valve are also characterized by how they operate. A small solenoid can generate a limited force. If that force is sufficient to open and close the valve, then a  direct acting  solenoid valve is possible. An approximate relationship between the required solenoid force  Fs, the fluid pressure  P, and the orifice areaA  for a direct acting solenoid value is: Where  d  is the orifice diameter. A typical solenoid force might be 15  N (3.   lbf). An application might be a low pressure (e. g. , 10 pounds per square inch (69  kPa)) gas with a small orifice diameter (e. g. ,  3? 8  in (9. 5  mm) fo r an orifice area of 0. 11  sq  in (7. 1? 10? 5  m2) and approximate force of 1. 1  lbf (4. 9  N)). When high pressures and large orifices are encountered, then high forces are required. To generate those forces, an  internally piloted  solenoid valve design may be possible. [1]  In such a design, the line pressure is used to generate the high valve forces; a small solenoid controls how the line pressure is used.Internally piloted valves are used in dishwashers and irrigation systems where the fluid is water, the pressure might be 80 pounds per square inch (550  kPa) and the orifice diameter might be  3? 4  in (19  mm). In some solenoid valves the solenoid acts directly on the main valve. Others use a small, complete solenoid valve, known as a pilot, to actuate a larger valve. While the second type is actually a solenoid valve combined with a pneumatically actuated valve, they are sold and packaged as a single unit referred to as a solenoid valve.Piloted valv es require much less power to control, but they are noticeably slower. Piloted solenoids usually need full power at all times to open and stay open, where a direct acting solenoid may only need full power for a short period of time to open it, and only low power to hold it. A direct acting solenoid valve typically operates in 5 to 10 milliseconds. The operation time of a piloted valve depends on its size; typical values are 15 to 150 milliseconds. Solenoid valves are used in  fluid power  pneumatic and hydraulic systems, to control cylinders, fluid power motors or larger industrial valves.Automaticirrigation sprinkler  systems also use solenoid valves with an automatic  controller. Domestic  washing machines  and  dishwashers  use solenoid valves to control water entry into the machine. Solenoid valves are used in  dentist chairs  to control air and water flow. In the  paintball  industry, solenoid valves are usually referred to simply as â€Å"solenoids. â €  They are commonly used to control a larger valve used to control the propellant (usually compressed air or CO2). In addition to this, these valves are now been used in household water purifiers (RO systems).Besides controlling the flow of air and fluids, solenoids are used in pharmacology experiments, especially for patch-clamp, which can control the application of agonist or antagonist. Many variations are possible on the basic, one-way, one-solenoid valve described above: * one- or two-solenoid valves; * direct current  or  alternating current  powered; * different number of ways and positions; INTRODUCTION TO PLC : A  Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC, is more or less a small computer with a built-in operating system (OS). This OS is highly specialized to handle incoming events in real time, i. . at the time of their occurrence. The PLC has input lines where sensors are connected to notify upon events (e. g. temperature above/below a certain level, liquid level reached, etc. ), and output lines to signal any reaction to the incoming events (e. g. start an engine, open/close a valve, etc. ). The system is user programmable. It uses a language called â€Å"Relay Ladder† or RLL (Relay Ladder Logic). The name of this language implies that the control logic of the earlier days, which was built from relays, is being simulated.The PLC is primarily used to control machinery. A program is written for the PLC which turns on and off outputs based on input conditions and the internal program. In this aspect, a PLC is similar to a computer. However, a PLC is designed to be programmed once, and run repeatedly as needed. In fact, a crafty programmer could use a PLC to control not only simple devices such as a garage door opener, but their whole house, including switching lights on and off at certain times, monitoring a custom built security system, etc.Most commonly, a PLC is found inside of a machine in an industrial environment. A PLC can run an automatic machine for years with little human intervention. They are designed to withstand most harsh environments. When the first electronic machine controls were designed, they used relays to control the machine logic (i. e. press â€Å"Start† to start the machine and press â€Å"Stop† to stop the machine). A basic machine might need a wall covered in relays to control all of its functions. There are a few limitations to this type of control. * Relays fail. * The delay when the relay turns on/off. There is an entire wall of relays to design/wire/troubleshoot. A PLC overcomes these limitations, it is a machine controlled operation. PLCs are becoming more and more intelligent. In recent years PLCs have been integrated into electrical communications  networks  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ i. e. , all the PLCs in an industrial environment have been plugged into a network which is usually hierarchically organized. The PLCs are then supervised by a control center. There exist many propri etary types of networks. One type which is widely known is  SCADA  (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition).The PLC is a purpose-built machine control computer designed to read digital and analog inputs from various sensors, execute a user defined logic program, and write the resulting digital and analog output values to various output elements like hydraulic and pneumatic actuators, indication lamps, solenoid coils, etc. Scan cycle Exact details vary between manufacturers, but most PLCs follow a ‘scan-cycle' format. Overhead Overhead includes testing I/O module integrity, verifying the user program logic hasn't changed, that the computer itself hasn't locked up (via a watchdog timer), and any necessary communications.Communications may include traffic over the PLC programmer port, remote I/O racks, and other external devices such as HMIs (Human Machine Interfaces). Input scan A ‘snapshot' of the digital and analog values present at the input cards is saved to an i nput memory table. Logic execution The user program is scanned element by element, then rung by rung until the end of the program, and resulting values written to an output memory table. Output scan Values from the resulting output memory table are written to the output modules. Once the output scan is complete the process repeats itself until the PLC is powered down.The time it takes to complete a scan cycle is, appropriately enough, the â€Å"scan cycle time†, and ranges from hundreds of milliseconds (on older PLCs, and/or PLCs with very complex programs) to only a few milliseconds on newer PLCs, and/or PLCs executing short, simple code. ADVANTAGES OF PLC: * PLC’s have flexibility (i. e. ) it is possible to use just one model of PLC to run any one of the 15 machines. * In a PLC program circuit the PLC program can be used from any keyboard sequence in a matter of minute and rewriting is required. PLC has a large number of contacts for each coil in its programming. * I ncreased technology makes it possible to compact move functions into smaller and less expensive packages. * A PLC programmed circuit can be pre-un ad evaluated in the officer or lab. The program can be typed in tested observed and modified if needed. * PLC circuit operation can be seen during operation directly on a CRT screen. * The operation speed for the PLC program is very fast. * PLC is more reliable. * A PLC programmer who works in digital or Boolean control system can easily perform PLC programming. PLC’s program can’t be made unless the PLC properly unlocked and programmed. LADDER LOGIC DIAGRAM : What is a Ladder Diagram? A Ladder Diagram is one of the simplest methods used to program a PLC. It is a graphical programming language evolved from electrical relay circuits. Each program statement is represented with a line, called the rung, that has all relevant inputs to the left and the output to the right. The output device of a rung is energized if electric powe r can conceptually flow from the left side of the rung to the right side.Input devices are assumed to block the flow of power if they are not activated. During the execution of a ladder diagram, the PLC reads the states of all inputs, then determines the states of all outputs starting from the rung at the top side, going down to the last rung, and finally updates the state of the output devices. * Naming Convention During the development of a PLC program, we must use specific names to identify the inputs, outputs, memory flags, timers and counters. PLC manufactures use a variety of approaches in naming the inputs, outputs and other resources.A typical naming convention is to identify inputs with the letter â€Å"I† and outputs with the letter â€Å"O†, followed be a 1-digit number that identifies the slot number and a 2-digit number that identifies the position of the input or output in the slot. For example: I1:00 refers to the first input of slot 1 O2:00 refers to th e first output of slot 2. Some manufactures number the inputs or outputs starting from 00, while others use the number 01 to identify the first input or output. It is also common to use numbers like 400 e. t. c. The state of an output can be also used as an input in a ladder diagram.In such a case the PLC uses the state of the specific output device that is stored in the output image memory. * Relay Logic Instructions (XIC and XIO) Examine if Closed (XIC) —–[ ]—— Use the XIC instruction in your ladder program to determine if a bit is On. When the instruction is executed, if the bit addressed is on (1), then the instruction is evaluated as true. When the instruction is executed, if the bit addressed is off (0), then the instruction is evaluated as false. Examine if Open (XIO) ——-[/]—— Use the XIO instruction in your ladder program to determine if a bit is Off.When the instruction is executed, if the bit addressed is off (0), the n the instruction is evaluated as true. When the instruction is executed, if the bit addressed is on (1), then the instruction is evaluated as false * Relay Logic Instructions: Input Transition Sensing Positive Transition Sense (PTS) The condition of the right link is ON for one ladder rung evaluation when a change from OFF to ON at the specified input is sensed. Negative Transition Sense (NTS) The condition of the right link is ON for one ladder rung evaluation when a change from ON to OFF at the specified input is sensed. * Output Instructions Output Energize (OTE) —-( )—– If the condition of the left link of the OTE is ON then the corresponding bit in the output data memory is set. The device wired to this output is also energized. Negative Output Energize (NOE) ——(/)—– If the condition of the left link of the OTE is OFF then the corresponding bit in the output data memory is set. The device wired output is also energized. Output L atch/Set (OTL) and Output Unlatch/Reset (OTU) If the condition of the left link of the OTL is momentary ON then the corresponding bit in the output data memory is set, and remains set even if the condition switches to the OFF state.The output will remain set until the condition of the left link of the OTU is momentary ON * Basic Logic Functions (OR, AND) Two Input OR Function The output is ON only if the two inputs are OFF. Two Input AND Function The output is ON if both of the two inputs are ON. * Basic Logic Functions (NAND,NOR) Two Input NAND Function The output is ON if any of the two inputs is OFF. Two Input NOR Function The output is ON if both of the two inputs are OFF. * Basic Logic Functions (EXOR, EXNOR) Two Input EXOR Function The output is ON if any of the two inputs is ON, but not both. Two Input EXNOR FunctionThe output is ON if both of the two inputs are either OFF or ON. * Set/Reset Latch Set/Reset Latch using a Hold-in contact Set/Reset Latch using Latch/Unlatch out puts Notes: O1:00’ means that the output is unchanged If both inputs are ON then normally the output is OFF, since the Unlatch rung appears last in the ladder diagram. * Timer Instructions Timer Instructions are output instructions used to time intervals for which their rung conditions are true (TON), or false (TOF). These are software timers. Their resolution and accuracy depends on a tick timer maintained by the microprocessor.Each timer instruction has two values (integers) associated with it: Accumulated Value (ACC): This is the current number of ticks (time-base intervals) that have been counted from the moment that the timer has been energized. Preset Value (PR): This is a predetermined value set by the programmer. When the accumulated value is equal to, or greater than the preset value, a status bit is set. This bit can be used to control an output device. Each timer is associated with two status bits: Timer Enable Bit (EN): This bit is set when the rung condition to t he left of the timer instruction are true.When this bit is set, the accumulated value is incremented on each time-base interval, until it reaches the preset value. Done Bit (DN): This bit is set when the accumulated value is equal to the preset value. It is reset when the rung condition becomes false. * Timer On-Delay (TON) Instruction The TON instruction begins count when its input rung conditions are true. The accumulated value is reset when the input rung conditions become false. Timer ladder diagram example. Typical timing diagram (Assume that Preset = 07). * Timer Off-Delay (TOF) InstructionThe TOF instruction begins count when its input rung makes a true-to-false transition, and continues counting for as long as the input rung remains false. The accumulated value is reset when the input rung conditions become false. Timer ladder diagram example. Typical timing diagram (Assume that Preset = 07). * Retentive Timer (RTO) Instruction The RTO instruction begins count when its input rung conditions are true. The accumulated value is retained when the input rung conditions become false, and continues counting after the input rung conditions become true. * Counter InstructionsCounter Instructions are output instructions used to count false-to-true rung transitions. These transitions are usually caused by events occurring at an input. These counters can be UP (incrementing) or DOWN (decrementing). Each counter instruction has two values (integers) associated with it: Accumulated Value (ACC): This is the current number of the counter. The initial value is zero. Preset Value (PR): This is a predetermined value set by the programmer. When the accumulated value is equal to, or greater than the preset value, a status bit is set. This bit can be used to control an output device.Each counter is associated with two status bits: Counter Enable Bit (EN): This bit is set when a false-to-true rung condition to the left of the counter instruction is detected. Done Bit (DN): T his bit is set when the accumulated value is equal to the preset value. It is reset when the rung condition becomes false. The maximum count value is 9999*. After a maximum count is reached, the counters reset and start counting from zero. * Count-up (CTU) Instruction The CTU instruction increments its accumulated value on each false-to-true transition at its input, starting from 0. Counter ladder diagram example.Typical timing diagram (Assume that Preset = 10). * Count-down (CTD) Instruction The CTD instruction decrements its accumulated value on each false-to-true transition at its input, starting from 0. Counter ladder diagram example. Typical timing diagram (Assume that Preset = -10). * The Reset (RES) Instruction The RES instruction resets timing and counting instructions. When the RES instruction is enabled it resets the following. Counters:Accumulated value, Counter Done Bit , Counter Enabled Bit. Timers: Accumulated value, Timer Done Bit, Timer Timing Bit, Timer Enable Bit.R eset ladder diagram example. ADVANTAGES ; APPLICATION: * Automatic control of machine. * Free from manual operation and frequent checking. * Machine fault is reduced. * Energy consumption is reduced. * This method can save more power. * Industrial application mainly used for boiler production. * Drilling and boring applications. * This applications can be implemented for all machines in BHEL. BOW CORRECTION MACHINE : These are the specifications of the bow correction machine currently in use. MACHINE| BOW CORRECTION MACHINE| CAPACITY| 600 TONS| CYLINDER BORE| 550 MM| RAM DIAMETER| 520 MM|DAYLIGHT| 3000 MM| THROAT| 1700 MM| STROKE| 500 MM| CONNECTED LOAD| 60+1+5 HP| TOTAL WEIGHT| 80 TONS| BOLSTER SIZE| 1500*2000*200 MM| SPEEDS OF OPERATION| 15mm/sec – APPROACH6mm/sec – PRESSING60mm/sec – RETURN | PURPOSE. In the pipes used in boilers, small pipes are attached using welding. This welding makes the pipe to bent. Thus its surface becomes uneven and makes it imperfec t to be used in boilers. In this case this machine is used. Using this machine the bents and bows can be straightened and makes the pipes perfect to be used in the boilers. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM : OPERATION.The hydraulic circuit is designed to achieve fast approach speed, slow pressing speed and fast return speeds by use of a single pump. The fast approach speed is achieved by ensuring that the cylinder ram moves down through its self weight or what is termed as gravity fall. To achieve gravity fall of the cylinder of the cylinder it is important to ensure that at all times the pressure in return line is minimum 5 kg/ cm2. On starting the motor the pump delivery is directed to the tank through unloading type relief valve no. 4. The same flow is directed to the Z1 lines of catridge valves 5 ; 7, which ensures that the valves are closed.On operation of solenoid S1 of main relief valve the pump flow is directed to the catridge valves, however due to differential areas the catridges are still closed and pump reaches system pressure and unloads to tank through relief valve 4. On operation of solenoid S2( valve 6) along with S1, Port A of solenoid valve no. 6 is connected to tank Y1 which facilitates opening of catridge valve 5 and hence the oil flows into the forward line of the cylinder resulting in downward movement. At the same time the oil in the return line of the cylinder is connected to tank at the set pressure through valve no. 11.Hence the cylinder moves down with slow pressing speed. On operation of solenoid S4 ( valve 8) along with S1 ; S2 the X port of catridge valve 10 is connected to tank through valve 8, 6 and port Y1 that ensures the opening of the catridge valve 10. Opening of the catridge valve ensures that the return line is connected directly to tank and hence the cylinder oves down with its self weight and fast approach speed is achieved. At the same time prefill valve 14 opens to fill the cylinder forward area with oil. To set the maximum fast appro ach speed valve 10 is provided with a stroke adjustment setting.On operation of solenoid S3(valve 6) along with S1, port B of solenoid valve no. 6 is connected to tank Y1 which facilitates opening of catridge valve 7 and hence oil flows into the return line of the cylinder. At the same time since A port of solenoid valve no. 6 is connected to pump port X4 is also connected to pump, ensures the opening of prefill valve no 14 and that the forward line of the cylinder is connected back to tank. This results in reverse movement of the cylinder. Pressure relief valve 9 is provided to ensure smooth deceleration of the cylinder from fast approach to pressing.The valve ensures that the pressure in X port of the cartridge valve does not exceed set pressure therby ensuring that the valve closes slowly reducing jerks. The hot oil from the machine is then sent to the chiller unit to reduce its temperature. CHILLER UNIT: In the chiller unit, the refrigerant is used to cool down the hot oil from the machine. REFRIGERATION: A liquid whose Saturation temperature at normal atmospheric pressure is below the temperature that is to be produced by refrigeration is chosen as the working liquid in the refrigerant.Such a liquid will evaporate at lower temperatures and will absorb hear as it does so. This heat is extracted from the surroundings. The vapour formed in this way is compressed in a compressor. After compression the refrigerant may be in the vapour state or, in the liquid state if its temperature after compression is not greater than the saturation temperature at that increase pressure. The low temperature vapour is condensed in a condenser, in doing so it lowers its temperature below the surroundings . Now the condensed liquid is expanded to a lower pressure and the cycle of refrigeration is repeated.REFRIGERATION CYCLE: * Compressors are used in vapour compression cycles. It is the heart of the system and it sucks low-pressure refrigerant vapour from the evaporator and co mpresses it to a pressure corresponding to the saturation temperature that will be higher than continuously re-circulate the refrigerant through the system. * Air-cooled condensers are heat exchangers,which reject heat from the condensing refrigerant to the atmosphere. * The function of condenser in a refrigerated system is to de-superheat and condense the compressed discharge refrigerant vapour.High-speed fans are mostly used to speed up the process. * At the exit of the condenser the refrigerant loses temperature but still is in high-pressure state. The temperature falls down a little high to the ambient. * Dryers are mainly used to capture the moisture content if any mixed with the refrigerant. When the refrigerant passes through its thin filter mesh the moisture gets trapped on the silica gel and clean refrigerant flows through. * Throttle valve(also called as Expansion valve)is also a very important component of the vapour compression refrigeration system.The function of an exp ansion device is to expand the liquid refrigerant from the condensing pressure to the evaporating pressure. Also it throttles the required flow into the evaporator depending on the load conditions. Commonly used expansion devices are capillary tubes, thermostatic expansion valves and constant pressure expansion valves. * Any liquid when evaporate creates a cooling effect. Same applies here, when the refrigerant exists expansion valve it is partly in vapour state at low temperature and pressure. It flows through the evaporator and exchanges heat with the surroundings. After existing the evaporator it has gained heat from the surrounding media, thus lowering the temperature in the freezing compartment. This superhead vapour passes further and is drawn by the compressor, which compresses it,and delivers to condenser, thus, completing the refrigeration cycle. The ladder diagram used in this machine is : CNT_ON CNT_OFF MEM_1 MEM_1 MEM_1 MOT_ON MOT_ON MOT_OFF VAL4_ONVAL4_ON VAL4_ON MEM _2 MEM_2 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 FAST_APP FAST_APP S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 PRESS_ON TIMER T1 PRESET 15 ACC 0 PRESS_ON S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 HOLD_ON HOLD_ON HOLD_MEM HOLD_MEM S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 RET_ONRET_ON VAL4_ON COMPARE TEMP_ON;45 TEMP_ON MEM_4 MEM_4 CHILLER_ON TEMP_ON CHILLER_OFF COMPARE TEMP_ON;45 LOW_SEN ALARM_ON V_LOW_SEN TANK_ONPRES_ON VAL14_ON EXISTING SYSTEM : * There is no temperature detection system. Hence, the chiller unit has to function continuously irrespective of hydraulic oil’s temperature. * Possibilities of machine can run due to friction since there is no Indication of oil in tank. * The chiller unit is running continuously hence there is a possibilities of lot of Energy consumption losses. * There is no automatic control for the whole machine. * There is no automatic function for declamping and lubrication. There is no oil level sensor in the hydraulic tank to sense the oil level in the tank. * Relays are used which is not automatic and inefficient. HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE HY DRAULIC TANK CHILLER UNIT PUMP SOLENOID VALVE PROPOSED SYSTEM: * In this method there is a temperature sensor which is used to sense the temperature of the oil in the hydraulic tank. * The chiller unit will be turned on only when the oil temperature gets increased with the specified value of oil temperature * Friction of the machine can be reduced by implementing the lubrication function. Oil level in the hydraulic tank can be detected by using an oil level sensor . * Two types of oil level sensor is used. I. Low level sensor II. Very low level sensor So that we can avoid the machine running in dangerous condition. * All the operation in one axis (x or y or z) can be operated by a single push button switch. * Declamping and lubrication function takes place automatically. ENERGY SAVING CALCULATION: * WITH CHILLER UNIT WORKING CONTINUOUSLY: For continuous running of chiller unit the motor consumes 18KW. Per day: morning -4hrs night -8hrs so chiller unit runs totally 12hrs a day. 8KW*1 2hrs=216 KWhr The chiller unit consumes 216KWhr per day. For electricity: 1unit= Rs. 5 Therefore 216*5= 1080 So for 216 unit it costs Rs. 1080 per day. 1080*30=Rs. 32,400 For 1month it costs Rs. 32,400 32400*303= Rs. 98,17,200 For 1year it costs Rs. 98,17,200. * WITH PLC: For automatic on/off of chiller unit the motor consumes 10KW. Per day: morning -4hrs night -8hrs so chiller unit runs totally 12hrs a day. 10KW*12hrs=120KWhr The chiller unit consumes 120KWhr per day. For electricity: 1unit= Rs. 5 Therefore 120*5= 600 So for 120unit it costs Rs. 600 per day. 600*30=Rs. 8,000 For 1month it costs Rs. 18,000 18000*303= Rs. 54,54,000 For 1year it costs Rs. 54,54,000. CONCLUSION : This project mainly focuses the oil temperature and oil level detection and also the automatic control of machine. Implementation of this project is simple and very economical. This applications can be implemented for all machines in BHEL. All the functions can be achieved through a single PLC program. The adv antage of our project is used to eliminate manual checking and operation. The above mentioned parameters and operation can be sensed and operated through PLC.This project saves more power to industries by reducing the power consumption. REFERENCES : 1. â€Å"Allen bradely Instruction Set user manual† by Rockwell Automation. 2. Programmable Logic Controllers: Programming Methods and Applications by John R. Hackworth and Frederick D. Hackworth, Jr 3. â€Å"Ladder logic fundamentals† industrial control system fall 2006. 4. DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK â€Å"INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL Volume 2 of 2†- U. S. Department of Energy Washington, D. C. 20585. 5. â€Å"Automating Manufacturing Systems with PLCs† (Version 5. 0, May 4, 2007) -Hugh Jack